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We identified two candidate genes annotated to auxin-related processes, associated with the phenotypic expression of ANGLE under well-watered conditions (Zm00001d019311; IAA-amino acid hydrolase ILR1-like 7) and stress plasticity (Zm00001d029356; O-methyltransferase ZRP4) in Arizona. Mature maize plant Leaves Roots. Maize roots and crown pieces were surface sterilised in 1 % sodium hypochlorite for 1 min, rinsed twice in sterile distilled water and allowed to dry in a laminar flow bench. Peer review under responsibility of Crop Science Society of China and Institute of Crop Science, CAAS. Root lodging often causes considerable yield Here we identify and characterize phenotypic plasticity in root architectural phenes in mature, field-grown maize and identify distinct genetic regions controlling these phenes in well-watered and water-stress conditions as well as genetic regions controlling the plastic stress and environmental response of these phenes. Crop varieties are generally developed for specific environmental and management scenarios. In the South Africa environment, root angles were steeper and lateral root phenes had considerably less variation compared with the Arizona environment. The stress plasticity group had significantly more genes associated with hormones and abiotic stress compared with the well-watered and water-stressed groups (Fig. Plasticity in root architecture may be advantageous for drought tolerance (e.g. Root growth in artificial systems may be constrained by the size of the growth media or container, and is buffered from the atmospheric environment in a completely different way when compared with field-grown conditions. These genes are orthologs of Arabidopsis ILR1 (IAA-LEUCINE RESISTANT 1) and ASMT (N-ACETYLSEROTONIN O-METHYLTRANSFERASE), respectively. Fig. Plant Production Science: Vol. Introduction. GWAS identified 69 significant SNPs associated with root architecture in well-watered and water-stressed plants and stress and environmental plastic responses, using a Bonferroni-corrected genome-wide threshold value of –log(P)=7.07 (Fig. For phenotypes in water-stress and well-watered environments in Arizona, an average of two replications over 3 years within each treatment were combined. Water stress was confirmed by an ~20% vegetative biomass growth reduction and 40% yield reduction in water-stressed compared with well-watered conditions. In addition, elongation and trajectory of growing roots are affected by changes in soil bulk density as a result of sieving and compacting soil, relative to undisturbed soil. Twelve maize genotypes were grown under replete and deficient N regimes in the field in South Africa and eight in the USA. In maize, crown roots are the majority of axial roots in the root system, contribute 60% to 80% of root biomass, and form the primary structural framework from which lateral roots emerge. GWAS results for root angle (ANGLE) for plants grown in (A) well-watered conditions, (B) water-stressed conditions, (C) water-stress plasticity in Arizona, (D) well-watered conditions in South Africa, and (E) environmental plasticity. Description of architectural phenes measured at anthesis. Sandhu et al., 2016). In drought conditions, plasticity in lateral root length and density (Kano et al., 2011; Kano-Nakata et al., 2013), root length density, and total root length (Kano-Nakata et al., 2011; Tran et al., 2014) correlated with greater shoot biomass, water uptake, and photosynthesis in rice. Water-stress environments have gene models associated with DNA and RNA regulation, and well-watered environments have gene models associated with abiotic stress and protein degredation in South Africa and protein transport in Arizona (Fig. Auxin has known roles in the establishment of root angle and development of lateral roots, and presumably is an important regulator of the development of other root phenes. Plasticity in response to water deficit has also been observed for the number of nodal roots in rice (Suralta et al., 2010) and maize (Gao and Lynch, 2016), lateral branching density and length in maize (Zhan et al., 2015), and deep rooting in wheat (Ehdaie et al., 2012; Wasson et al., 2012), millet (Rostamza et al., 2013), rice (Hazman and Brown, 2018), and maize (Nakamoto, 1993). A wide range of natural variation was observed for architectural phenes, particularly in the Arizona environment (Supplementary Table S3). The axial hydraulic conductivity of seminal and crown roots in 5-week-old maize. Spearman and Pearson correlations between replications and years suggested data could be combined by environment and treatment, therefore mean phenotypic values across all years were calculated and used for subsequent analysis. and can be enhanced by injury to the roots or crown, mainly by insect feeding. Short, dense lateral roots create overlapping resource depletion zones around roots of the same plant, decreasing resource capture efficiency (Ge et al., 2000). Growth stage 10 is reached when the plant is biologically mature (Fig. Root phenes are highly quantitative, and plasticity in response to edaphic stress and different environments may enable breeding efforts for plastic or non-plastic lines in specific phenes. A reduced number of crown roots in modern maize lines increased plant growth in high nitrogen environments and was associated with increased nitrogen use efficiency compared with commercially successful lines a century ago (York et al., 2015). Consideration of multiple phenes, gene networks, and dynamic responses may result in stronger associations of phenes with genetic loci or regulatory pathways. As shown in Figure 1, the maize roots were divided into primary, seminal and crown roots according to Hochholdinger et al. Fig. Evaluations of maize root crowns for architecture were performed based on the shovelomics method followed by manual phenotyping (Trachsel et al., 2011) in 2010–2012 and image analysis with Digital Imaging of Root Traits (DIRT) in 2013–2017 (Bucksch et al., 2014; Das et al., 2015). Phenotypic profiling of three recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations of maize (Zea mays L.; B73xMo17, Oh43xW64a, Ny821xH99) was conducted in 2008 in a silt loam soil in Pennsylvania and in a sandy soil in Wisconsin, and again in 2009 in Pennsylvania. It has been proposed that crops that can adapt their growth in response to environmental signals may be a breeding target for increasing agricultural productivity (e.g. 1). Root angle influences rooting depth and thus the capture of deep soil water, increasing drought tolerance (Mace et al., 2012; Uga et al., 2013). Environmental plasticity has gene models associated with mainly RNA regulation- and transport-related processes. Despite its importance, there is limited information on the function of the different root types in extracting water from the soil. Freiburg. Introduction. WOX11 , a WUSCHEL -related homeobox gene specifically expressed in the emerging crown root meristem, is a key regulator in crown root development. However, distinct genotypes expressed plasticity to different degrees for different phenes. Root phene states that enable exploration of deep soil domains enhance the capture of mobile soil resources, including water and nitrate (Lynch and Wojciechowski, 2015). Maize root system architecture is determined by distinct embryonic and postembryonic root types that are formed during different phases of development. Synergisms exist between phene states with a large metabolic cost, for example lateral root branching density, with phenes that reduce the metabolic cost of the root, including fewer basal root whorls in bean. When the collar of the first leaf first becomes visible, the first set of nodal roots can be identified by a slight swelling at the lowermost node. DISTLAT was 65% greater in the Arizona environment compared with the South Africa environment (Fig. A cytochrome P450 gene differentially expressed in nitrogen stress conditions in maize leaves and ears (Zm00001d048702) (Arp, 2017) has implications in auxin formation (Irmisch et al., 2015) and was associated with DISTLAT in well-watered conditions. BF and ANGLE were reduced by 46% and 38%, respectively in the Arizona environment compared with the South Africa environment. Crown and stalk rot diseases continue to become evident in some corn fields in Nebraska. Root anatomy was collected by excising a nodal root from the crown and sampling a 3‐cm segment from 5–8 cm of the basal portion of the root. Many mutants that affect root develop- ment have been identified and characterized in Arabidopsis, contributing to our understanding of the genetic mechanisms of root development (Casimiro et al., 2003; Casson and Lindsey, 2003; Schiefelbein, 2003).

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